The Case of the Missing Carbon

Alone in a sealed jar, a mouse would die from exhaled CO2. But as scientist Joseph Priestley observed in 1771, adding a mint plant allows the mouse to thrive. In this proof of photosynthesis, the mint absorbed CO2, retained carbon for growth, and released oxygen. Two centuries later humans tried—and failed—to survive in a sealed environment in Arizona's Biosphere 2.

It's there on a monitor: the forest is breathing. Late summer sunlight filters through a canopy of green as Steven Wofsy unlocks a shed in a Massachusetts woodland and enters a room stuffed with equipment and tangled with wires and hoses.
The machinery monitors the vital functions of a small section of Harvard Forest in the center of the state. Bright red numbers dance on a gauge, flickering up and down several times a second. The reading reveals the carbon dioxide concentration just above the treetops near the shed, where instruments on a hundred-foot (30-meter) tower of steel lattice sniff the air. The numbers are running surprisingly low for the beginning of the 21st century: around 360 parts per million, ten less than the global average. That's the trees' doing. Basking in the sunshine, they inhale carbon dioxide and turn it into leaves and wood.
In nourishing itself, this patch of pine, oak, and maple is also undoing a tiny bit of a great global change driven by humanity. Start the car, turn on a light, adjust the thermostat, or do just about anything, and you add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. If you're an average resident of the United States, your contribution adds up to more than 5.5 tons (5 metric tons) of carbon a year.
The coal, oil, and natural gas that drive the industrial world's economy all contain carbon inhaled by plants hundreds of millions of years ago—carbon that now is returning to the atmosphere through smokestacks and exhaust pipes, joining emissions from forest burned to clear land in poorer countries. Carbon dioxide is foremost in an array of gases from human activity that increase the atmosphere's ability to trap heat. (Methane from cattle, rice fields, and landfills, and the chlorofluorocarbons in some refrigerators and air conditioners are others.) Few scientists doubt that this greenhouse warming of the atmosphere is already taking hold. Melting glaciers, earlier springs, and a steady rise in global average temperature are just some of its harbingers.
By rights it should be worse. Each year humanity dumps roughly 8.8 billion tons (8 metric tons) of carbon into the atmosphere, 6.5 billion tons (5.9 metric tons) from fossil fuels and 1.5 billion (1.4 metric) from deforestation. But less than half that total, 3.2 billion tons (2.9 metric tons), remains in the atmosphere to warm the planet. Where is the missing carbon? "It's a really major mystery, if you think about it," says Wofsy, an atmospheric scientist at Harvard University. His research site in the Harvard Forest is apparently not the only place where nature is breathing deep and helping save us from ourselves. Forests, grasslands, and the waters of the oceans must be acting as carbon sinks. They steal back roughly half of the carbon dioxide we emit, slowing its buildup in the atmosphere and delaying the effects on climate.
Who can complain? No one, for now. But the problem is that scientists can't be sure that this blessing will last, or whether, as the globe continues to warm, it might even change to a curse if forests and other ecosystems change from carbon sinks to sources, releasing more carbon into the atmosphere than they absorb. The doubts have sent researchers into forests and rangelands, out to the tundra and to sea, to track down and understand the missing carbon.

African Elephants Really Two Wildly Different Species?

The African elephant is actually two different species, according to a new DNA study that may settle a long-simmering debate.
"The big surprise of this paper," though, is just how genetically different the African savanna elephant and the African forest elephant are, co-author David Reich said.
According to the new research, the two major types of African elephants are about as genetically distinct from each other as the Asian elephant is from the extinct woolly mammoth.

And that difference has deep roots in the elephant family tree, the DNA evidence suggests.

The two apparent African elephant species appear to have evolved from a common ancestor between two and a half million and five million years ago—nearly as long ago as the human and chimpanzee lineages diverged, according to some genetic studies.

For Species Designation, Size Doesn't Matter

Traditionally, the forest and savanna elephants have been classified as subspecies of the same species. But numerous distinctions have been noted. For example, forest elephants live in family groups of just a few animals, whereas savanna elephant family groups number about ten and often congregate in groups of 70 or so.

And—perhaps unsurprisingly, given its wide-open habitat—the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) has evolved to be about twice as big as the forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis).
The savanna elephant tips the scales at up to seven tons and stands a full meter (3.3 feet) taller at the shoulder than the African forest elephant, which lives in equatorial forests of central and western Africa.

But even plainly visible morphological, or physical, differences don't necessarily indicate that animals are of separate species.

"Animals have an amazing capacity to change in morphology over short periods of time," said Reich, a population geneticist at Harvard Medical School.

Without pressures from predators and competitors, for example, species isolated on islands can shrink in just tens of thousands of years—a blink of the eye in evolutionary time.

Elephants have experienced such transitions before, producing animals like the "pygmy" Asian elephant of Borneo, which isn't considered a separate species, despite its relatively short, round shape.
Interspecies Elephant Sex?

Debate over the species status of African elephants has been simmering for at least a decade.

A 2001 study in the journal Science included the first DNA evidence that the savanna and forest elephants are separate species.

But then other studies showed that at least a small number of savanna elephants shared mitochondrial DNA—genetic information passed down from only mothers—with forest elephants.
This "proved there was some interbreeding within at least the past 500,000 years," Reich explained.
But that limited interbreeding isn't evidence that the two elephant types are from the same species, he said. It's just an example of interspecies hybridization, relatively common in the animal world, ha added.

Mammoth DNA Called Into Play

The key to the new discovery was some "cold case" genetics work on ancient, extinct elephant relatives: the woolly mammoth and the mastodon. The mastodon's nuclear genome, in particular, was sequenced for the first time for the study.

The genomes of five distinct animals—the Asian elephant, African savanna elephant, African forest elephant, woolly mammoth, and American mastodon—were then compared and contrasted.

The results showed that "in fact these [African elephant] populations diverged long ago and are at least as different as Asian elephants and mammoths—and those two are not only different species but entirely different genera," Reich said.

The apparent new species discovery is more than just cocktail party fodder for geneticists—it may have important conservation and management implications.

If Africa's elephants are from two distinct species, then each has a smaller population than previously believed. In this case, forest elephants may be of particular concern, because far less is known about their population status. Their numbers may prove small enough to garner additional protections.

Serengeti Road on, stresses Magufuli

The government has stressed that plans for construction of the proposed 480-km Arusha-Musoma highway through the Serengeti National Park are still on despite mounting pressures from local and international activists.

Speaking here exclusively after inspecting the construction of the Arusha-Namanga highway, minister for Works, Dr John Magufuli explained: “There is no way we can stop constructing this important road.”

Construction of the Serengeti highway is set to begin in 2012. The corridor will run from Mto-wa-Mbu, to Engaruka on to Lake Natron shores, Loliondo, Serengeti and finally Musoma.

He said the road was important both socially and economically as it linked people in the northern tourists’ circuits with other Tanzanians as well as boosting the tourist industry in the country.

Dr Magufuli noted that for years, thousands of people in Loliondo and Serengeti areas were denied proper road networks.

He wondered why the pressure was coming from environmental activists in neighbouring countries like Kenya.

“I wonder as why these pressures come from Kenya? This road will benefit our people and the development of our country, so we need to be firm on this,” he said, adding: “I have visited different national parks like those in South Africa and Botwana, and there are tarmac roads, yet the wild animals are still there.”

According to the outspoken minister, the Tanzania National Parks Authority (Tanapa) had carried out its own survey and found that the road will have no negative impacts on the Serengeti national park.

“So, I don’t know where these noises are coming from,” he said, stressing that the road will ease movement of goods and people in the northern regions and the neighbouring countries.

He however, agreed with the proposal by Tanzania’s non-governmental organizations engaged in environmental issues not to tarmac a section between Kleins gate and Tabora B area of the Serengeti National Park.

A network of 56 environmental organisations recently argued that the 53-km section of the proposed road is an important corridor for seasonal migration of wildebeest.

The network’s representatives made the call recently after working on people’s views on the controversial project, which has drawn the attention of activists from around the world.

An official from Serengeti Environmental Protection and Development Association (SEPDA) Joseph Masina said the majority of people backed the project due to its socio-economic importance.

Deo Mfugale, chairman of the Journalists Environmental Association of Tanzania (JET) said the Serengeti National Park needs to maintain its status, as the World Heritage Site by keeping its environment natural.

About a month ago hundreds of people living along the proposed Arusha-Musoma highway rallied behind the plan, citing economic importance to the local communities and the entire nation.

For almost six months, green activists have been rallying against the proposed road, citing potential disruption to the world’s greatest migration route of wildebeest which was likely to collapse.

The government of Tanzania has maintained its determination to construct the road, estimated to cost USD480million, saying it had taken the necessary precaution not to disrupt the environment.

During his election campaign trail, President Jakaya Kikwete maintained that the planned road would not disturb the ecosystem of Ngorongoro Conservation Area.

He said the project had taken into consideration all necessary precautions regarding environmental conservation.

“The road will not pass through the conservation area in the first place and all precautions have been taken to make sure that the wildlife is not affected,” the president explained.

Saa Nane to become national park

THE status of Saa Nane Island in Mwanza Region will soon be elevated to national park, according to the Arusha-based Tanzania National Parks Authority. The new status will take effect sometime next year. Saa Nane, which is being upgraded from its previous status as a forest reserve and wildlife acclimatization zone, will increase the number of national parks from the current 15 to 16 next year. "Saa Nane Island will be the first ever Wildlife Game Park to be located within a city," said Mr Donatus Bayona, the Acting Conservator of the proposed national park. He explained that already the rocky island with breathtaking scenic settings, natural growth and marine attractions has been attracting many residents from Mwanza and the surrounding Lake Zone regions. The Park Warden in charge of tourism, Ms Rukia Juma Mallya, said the proposed national park could help promote domestic tourism. According to her, the island currently gets an average of 250 visitors per month and between 180 and 200 of those are local Tanzanians coming mainly from Mwanza. After being gazetted next year, Saa Nane Island is also going to be the smallest national park in both Tanzania and East Africa, with its territory measuring some 0.7 square kilometres comprising both dry land and water. The proposed Saa Nane National Park will command a 200-metre perimeter of water to the south and 100 meters aquatic corridor in the north. The Acting Conservator, Mr Bayona, said that the new proposal includes the incorporation of two smaller islets -- Chankende Kubwa and Chankende Ndogo -- located in the southern part of the main island. "Local residents have asked us to take under our wing the two islands in order to curb illegal fishing, environment destruction as well as crime because the waters surrounding the two land features on Lake Victoria will be manned and patrolled by TANAPA wardens," he said. But what should people expect to find at Saa Nane Island? "The proposed national park is home to mammals like the Impala, rock hyrax, velvet monkeys, wild cats, clawless Otters and de-brazzas monkeys. The aquatic part of the park will offer all types of fish, crocodiles, marine snakes and monitor lizards. Other reptiles include tortoises, grass snakes, pythons and agama lizards." There are plans to introduce new animal species to boost the island's wildlife variety and the conservator reveals that soon zebras, grant's gazelles, dik-diks and Kllipringers will be included at Saa Nane after an extensive study by zoological experts including scholars from the University of Dar es Salaam. Other attractions at Saa Nane include the landmarks of Mwanza; the huge naturally designed rocky hills and landscapes, the lake view and natural vegetation decorated by a variety of birds' species, insects and flowers.

Timber harvest permits under stricter scrutiny

THE Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism has suspended processing of all application forms for permits to harvest forest products, pending completion of an in-depth investigation on some noticeable irregularities. Among other issues under scrutiny are factors behind the continued authorization of permits despite an official ban by the government. Some of the permits were misused to propel illegal exports of logs together with the associated revenue denied to the government in the tune of billions. Sources revealed that in the list of applicants are four 'foreign' companies that for the last six months kept pressing for authorization of their permits to harvest the expensive teak-wood in Mtibwa, Morogoro and Longuza Forest in Lushoto, Tanga Region. The applicants previously bragging and confident to have the permits in their possession anytime before elections were disappointed by the change of leadership in the ministry. Impeccable sources from within have disclosed that the applicants believed that the permits would be issued promptly due to the pressure exerted by influential personalities to expedite the process. It was further disclosed that some of the entrusted government officials both within and outside the forestry division have teamed up to form forest product export companies but the majority opt to hide their identities. However, Natural Resources Minister Ezekiel Maige has sensed some irregularities in different sections, including issuance of permits and expenditure of public funds through unnecessary trips abroad. "Laws and regulations must be adhered to and no stone will be left unturned. Shoddy deals are totally unacceptable. Our (ministry) responsibility includes management of natural resources, cultural resources and the development of the tourism industry," Maige explained. Nevertheless, the minister was explicit on harnessing of the resources, saying that timber harvesting was not prohibited indefinitely but rather should be done in a sustainable manner not indiscriminately. The 'Sunday News' wanted to find out whether the reported irregularities were accidental or deliberate. The answer is simple; deliberate. Local traders including corrupt officials were taking advantage of the existing outdated rates charged for forest products in the country. Local traders have proved beyond reasonable doubt that the world market offers better prices many times more than the local rates. As a result more join the business confident of huge returns. At the moment, teak wood fetches the best prices in the world market but comparative revenue demanded in Tanzania is hardly 200,000/- or USD 133.3 per cubic meter, equivalent to USD 1,330 per tonne as opposed to over USD 3,000 per tonne abroad. The worst part of the story is that even the necessary revenue is not fully paid and the income does not match the consignment(s) ferried to distant destinations. Uncelebrated ports like Mafia, Lindi, Mtwara, Pangani and others are excellent exit points of untaxed logs. The document at hand, for example, under the title, License to fell and collect Forest Produce in General Land with serial number 000008535 issued in one of the district councils on May 07, 2008 indicated that 1,080,000/- was paid as revenue for 60 cubic metres of Mkongo wood. This is equivalent to 18,000/- per cubic metre or 180,000/- per tonne which equals USD 120. From the Web, the teakwood wholesale selling prices are posted each month by the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) According to ITTO, the average wholesale price of teak in 2002 was USD $2,929 per Hoppus tonne. But In January 2003, the price had risen again to $3,244 for a three months rolling average of $3,063. Among other surprises noticed despite official government ban on log export since 2006 was laxity in supervising felling of trees even for timber meant for domestic consumption. Sources further explained that it was common for a trader, for example, to be granted a permit to harvest 100 cubic metres of wood but left alone to harvest 300 cubic metres. "Lack of control was deliberate only to 'penalize' traders at check points. But little goes to the government coffers because the check points are quite symbolic. The alleged penalty goes into individual pockets," another source said. He added; "In fact the check points are nothing short of 'cash points' where money exchanges hands.. Perhaps the new administration will make a difference," the source sounded optimistic. The latest information indicated that the ongoing reforms at the ministry have annoyed corrupt officials who have established business empires beyond borders. To prove their word, sources outlined three factors that complicated the fight against illegal export of logs and suggested ways to stamp out the illegal transactions. First; "The existing alliance between corrupt officials and unscrupulous log exporters will continue to drain the country's resources unless decisive measures were taken to break the chain," said the source. Secondly; "The advent of internet communication facilitated conclusion of business deals with foreign dealers who are less concerned with losses that the country of origin incurred," And lastly; "The negative attitude that forests and other natural resources belonged to no body is quite detrimental and should be abandoned forthwith, as corrupt officials capitalized on the assumption to continue looting the country," sources concluded. The government banned export of logs in 2004 and reaffirmed its commitment in 2006, yet different lame excuses were given to issue permits to traders who are paying insignificant amount of revenue and pocket the huge profit.

what is carbon market

Emissions trading (also known as cap and trade) is a market-based approach used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants.

A central authority (usually a governmental body) sets a limit or cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. The limit or cap is allocated or sold to firms in the form of emissions permits which represent the right to emit or discharge a specific volume of the specified pollutant. Firms are required to hold a number of permits (or carbon credits) equivalent to their emissions. The total number of permits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that level. Firms that need to increase their emission permits must buy permits from those who require fewer permits The transfer of permits is referred to as a trade. In effect, the buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced emissions. Thus, in theory, those who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so, achieving the pollution reduction at the lowest cost to society

Under the Kyoto Protocol, there are two main trading devices. The first, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), allows Kyoto countries to offset their emissions by investing in clean technologies in developing countries or purchasing the resultant Certificates of Emission Reduction (CERs) from such projects. The second, called Joint Implementation (JI), allows industrialized countries to do essentially the same thing, only in other industrialized countries.

Irrigation farming necessary for Kilimo Kwanza initiative`

The ‘Kilimo Kwanza’ initiative will not help pull millions of farmers eradicate poverty if there is no concerted effort to put in place irrigation farming infrastructure, according to farmers, who attendeds one-day training programme on ‘Kilimo Kwanza’ in Arusha at the weekend. They said continued reliance on rain-fed agriculture was unrealistic.

Naiman Kitomari from Kalangai Village said if relying on unpredictable rains continued, poverty eradication efforts would hardly succeed.

He explained that there was a need to construct irrigation infrastructure in all productive areas to boost agriculture. Citing his own example, Kitomari said he once borrowed money from the village’s Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies (Saccos) but he was unsuccessful because he relied on unreliable rains.

Maliaki Mbesere from Mkonoo Village said rain-fed agriculture had failed to help many farmers eradicate poverty and improve their livelihoods.

He noted that climate change had aggravated the situation because rainfall trends in most cases had been unpredictable.

An Arumeru District resident, William Nulu, said: “I was forced to sell my cow to get money to settle my loan from the Saccos. This is because I failed to get enough crops to meet the costs I incurred in production.”

He explained that during the farming season, the rain was not enough and so he harvested very little.

“It is a waste of time and resources for farmers to continue relying on rain-fed agriculture,” said Nulu.

Echoing Nulu’s statement, Thomas John Laizer, from Monduli District said: “This kind of farming is no longer useful and irrigation farming should be applied, instead.”

Laizer also cited lack of proper marketing as a key challenge to the implementation of ‘Kilimo Kwanza’ in Tanzania.

“There are areas where farmers have managed to produce enough crops but marketing remains a challenge as they don’t know where to sell their produce. At the end of the day, they sell their produce at a throw-away price, making them remain in the vicious cycle of poverty,” he said.

Training facilitator from the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives, Abdallah Msambachi, said irrigation farming and the application of high yielding inputs were key issues to ensure optimal crop production in the country.

He called on farmers to engage in irrigation farming, which had proved to be successful in other parts of the world.

Citing the 1997 agriculture and livestock policy, the official said it was clear that the policy advocated irrigation farming as an ideal solution to unpredictable rainfall.

Msambachi further said there was a need for the private sector to engage in the agricultural sector, which he said was the backbone of the country’s economy as it employed over 80 per cent of Tanzanians.

The training programme, which was organised by Arusha-based civil society organisation Hakikazi Catalyst, meant to equip small-scale farmers with modern farming skills to implement ‘Kilimo Kwanza’. Participants came from Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Manyara regions.